Dog Behaviors and What They Mean

Dogs are very popular as pets because they are loving, playful and very loyal to their owners. To be able to form a strong bond with them, dog owners must try to learn about dog behavior. The following write-up provides information that will help you understand their body language and vocalizations.

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Dog behavior meaning
Did You Know?
Aggression is a canine behavioral problem that is a common cause of concern for dog owners. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, every year 800,000 Americans seek medical help for the treatment of dog bites.
Dogs are called a man's best friend. Not only do they have unconditional love to offer to their master, they are loyal and will leave no stone unturned in protecting their master. However, the right kind of human interaction or training is necessary to deepen the bond between the dog and the owner. Obedience training is very essential as it helps in establishing the owner as the leader of the pack. Dogs need structure or routine in their lives. It is the responsibility of the owner to provide structure. Owners must also have a proper understanding about canine behavior. This will prevent them from misreading the pet's body language.

Canine Behavior

It is mainly the dog's body language that helps the owner understand what the dog is trying to convey. Besides body language, dogs also use vocalizations for expressing themselves. Here's some information about their body language.

Wagging the Tail: Dogs usually express their excitement and happiness by wagging their tail, but there's a need to pay attention to the manner in which they wag their tail. If the dog is happy, the tail will be moving sideways. Even the dog's rear end will wiggle. This is the most common behavior or gesture displayed by a dog. Pet dogs usually display such a behavior when they see their owner after a long time, and also when they spot their favorite treat or food item. If the dog is wagging the tail in short, fast strokes, it may be a sign of aggression. Stay away from the dog if the tail is held high, and appears tense and stiff. These may be the signs of an impending attack.

Digging: Digging is a very common behavior in canines. While digging is quite common in hunting dog breeds, most breeds indulge in digging. Dogs usually dig to hide some of their favorite possessions such as bones or toys, which they would like to hunt for later. They may even dig out of boredom. Another reason behind the digging may be the need to indulge in physical activity. When left alone for long periods, dogs could suffer from separation anxiety. When confined, the dog may try to escape. Frequent barking, chewing, digging and house soiling when left alone are some of the signs of separation anxiety. Approximately 14% of dogs in the U.S. may show one or more signs of separation anxiety.

Sniffing: Sniffing is an instinctive behavior in canines. Dogs have a very strong sense of smell. Their sense of smell is highly developed. Sniffing helps them understand their surroundings. They sniff to acquire the scent of other humans and dogs. While they often lick to show affection, they may also lick to process information about that person. This helps the dogs identify that person in future.

Jumping: Jumping is more common in puppies than in dogs. It is a way of displaying affection and excitement. It might get troublesome when they jump too frequently, which may be to attract attention. However, jumping could even be a way of asserting dominance.

Biting: Chewing and biting is more common in puppies who display such behavior when they are teething. An adult dog may bite if he feels frightened or when he is trying to protect or guard his territory. Growling, lunging, and biting are all signs of aggression. Incidence of biting may be higher in certain breeds. Proper training is required to modify such a behavior.

Marking: You may have seen that dogs tend to urinate on car tires or grass. This is a way of marking their territory. If you notice that your dog sniffs around a lot and urinates at frequent intervals, he does so to communicate with other dogs and to mark the places so that he finds his way back home in case he gets lost.


Vocalizations

Barking: This is probably the most natural and normal behavior displayed by canines. Dogs bark to threaten strangers and prevent them from entering the house. They bark to communicate the arrival of a stranger or somebody they are familiar with, and also to communicate with other dogs. In case of dogs suffering from separation anxiety, the bark is usually high-pitched. Excessive barking, however, is a behavioral problem and should be rectified with appropriate training.

Whining: Dogs mostly whine when they want something or are in desperate need of some pampering. They may whine just to attract attention. They may also whine when they panic. They may whine and whimper to express fear or pain. They may whimper when they feel neglected.

Growling: Dogs may growl while playing, but growling could even be followed by an act of aggression. This may actually be a warning to stop what you may be doing at the moment.

Howling: Dogs may howl in response to certain sounds. They may howl when they hear the sound of sirens. They may howl when they are under stress.


Behavioral Problems in Dogs

There are certain behavioral problems that a dog owner should know about, so that these problems can be prevented by modifying the behavior of the dog with the help of training.

Aggressiveness: Aggressiveness is the most common behavioral problem in dogs and there are different types of dog aggression. This kind of behavior may harm you as well as other people, especially children around you. Excessive barking, biting, growling and destructive chewing are some of the signs of aggression in dogs.

Pulling on the Leash: Most dogs pull on the leash to assert the fact that they are the leaders and will show the way. This behavioral problem needs to be prevented earlier on with training and reinforcement.

Inappropriate Urination and Defecation: When your dog urinates or defecates in the house despite being toilet trained, it may be trying to convey his displeasure on certain things like being left alone or a change in food. It can be rectified with behavioral training. Do consult a veterinarian as an underlying medical condition may be behind such behavior.

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Understanding and modifying canine behavior will help you deepen your bond with the dog and will make your dog's life as a pet a lot easier. Dogs might display gestures to catch someone's attention, however these attempts if not controlled while the dog is still a puppy, might later on become a problem that needs to be dealt with.

Facts About the Nicobar Pigeon

Pigeons are normally said to be too common and a nuisance. But, meet the Nicobar pigeon - a gorgeous bird, thanks to the colorful plumage. This article tells you about its habitat, diet, and other interesting information.
Powerful Stomachs!

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One of the adaptations of these birds is that they have a very strong gizzard (the part of the stomach used for grinding food). This helps them feed on hard nuts which humans can eat only after hammering them.
The Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) is one of the largest pigeons and is the only member of its genus. It is also known as vulturine pigeon, hackled pigeon, or white-tailed pigeon. It has a beautiful plumage, unlike its close relative the dodo (gray). These birds are found only in some parts of the world, like the Andaman and Nicobar islands in Southeast Asia. They try their best to maintain distance from humans and other predatory mammals. Their behavior is quite different from the other pigeons and doves.

Very little is known and studied about these beautiful birds. Their sightings are possible but they breed on very remote (no human habitat) islands. Let's try to gain more information about them.


Scientific Classification
✦ Kingdom: Animalia
✦ Phylum: Chordata
✦ Class: Aves
✦ Subclass: Neornithes
✦ Infraclass: Neognathae
✦ Superorder: Neoaves
✦ Order: Columbiformes
✦ Family: Columbidae
✦ Genus: Caloenas
✦ Species: C. Nicobarica


Appearance

✦ It has a sturdy body with a small head, long legs and wings, and a small white tail. The adults grow up to 16 inches and will weigh about 1 pound. The females can be on the heavier side.

✦ The feathers on the head and the neck are blue gray. The mane is covered with iridescent, purple-colored long hackles.

✦ The legs are purplish red in color and have long yellow claws. Their hooked bills are black in color and have a black knob near the base. The juveniles lack a pure white tail.


✦ They have iridescent feathers in shades of green to blue with golden and coppery overtones.

✦ The male and the female both have the same plumage but they can be distinguished easily. The male is larger than the female and has a brown iris, while the female has a white iris. Also, the females have a smaller knob on their bills.


Range, Habitat, and Diet
✦ It is found mainly in South East Asia and the Pacific. Its range starts from the Nicobar Islands in the Andaman Sea to Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and then Papua New Guinea. They are also found on parts of the Solomon Islands and Palau, Myanmar, and the islands near Cambodia and Vietnam.

✦ They prefer a habitat of small and wooded forests, where they get original forests to feed on. They are also seen near lowland forests and mangroves as they need a constant supply of food. Even though they are spread over a fairly wide range, they are very rarely spotted as they prefer to inhabit the less disturbed islands. These birds are quite nomadic because they will keep moving to different islands.

✦ These birds feed on different fruits, seeds, and some small insects. Their strong gizzard helps them feed on nuts which have very hard shells.


Breeding

✦ In the wild, these birds breed in places where there is no human intervention. Also, these birds are monogamous, and hence, mate for life. The season starts with courtship where males are seen bowing and showing off their bright plumage. The courtship period can continue for a few days.

✦ These birds can breed year-round. The male selects the nesting site and gathers all the required materials. The female then arranges them. These birds do not make complicated nests as they untidily use only some twigs and dried leaves, just to prevent the egg from rolling down. The nests are built in trees, but not very far from the ground. They may build it higher if in a disturbed area. Sometimes, one nest invites the other flock members to build nests at the same tree.

✦ The female lays only one egg per clutch. The egg is elliptical in shape and white with a bluish tinge. Both parents take turns in incubating the egg for a period of 3 - 4 weeks. When the chick is born, it is naked and altricial, which means completely dependent on its parents. The adults regurgitate their food and feed the chick a crop milk. The fledglings get independent only after a month, but choose to stay in the nest for some more time. The juveniles have a dark-colored tail till 2 years and then they get the adult white tail.

✦ The mother can lay another clutch after the first chick is 40 days old. Their lifespan is 8 - 12 years in the wild, and 10 - 15 years in captivity.


Some Facts
✦ These birds are seen traveling in big flocks, almost up to 85 birds. They spend their day searching for seeds, berries, and insects in the forests. During the day, they do not mind human presence, but at night, they prefer and migrate to deserted islands.



Notice the white tail
✦ The white tail of the birds can be most prominently seen when they are flying. The tail guides other birds while flying at night or in the dark. Everyone follows each other's tail and manages to fly in a flock.

✦ These birds have the ability to suck up water (like we do from a straw). This feature is shared by all pigeons, but other birds have to look up to take in the water.

✦ Some birds are known to keep their neck plumage erect, especially males in courtship, or sometimes, in aggression.

✦ These are not very vocal birds but they normally coo. They make a sound that resembles a pig grunting, to scare and threaten predators.

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Conservation
Unfortunately, this colorful species has been marked as "Near Threatened" by the IUCN. The exact population is unknown but the numbers have been reducing. Clearance of islands and the forest areas have caused their decline. Also, predators like cats and rats were introduced in the breeding areas which have killed many of them. Last but not the least, Hunting! These birds were killed for food, pet trade, and also for their gizzard stones. The gizzard stones were sold as jewelry. Many have been taking efforts to preserve this species. Hopefully, success comes their way!

Life Cycle of a Bean Plant

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The bean plant is not only a favorite plant of kitchen gardeners, but also an experimental model that students can use to study plant growth and development. Let me assist you in understanding the various stages of its life cycle.The bean plant belongs to one of the largest family of flowering plants. A bean refers to the seed of a leguminous plant. The term "beans" is generally used as a blanket name for common beans, fava or broad beans, soybeans, chickpeas, lentils, and seeds of various other plants, under the bean family or Leguminosae family of flowering plants (Angiosperms). The common bean encompasses different species and subspecies under the genus Phaseolus, out of which, P. vulgaris is the most widely known variety. The other commonly known ones are, kidney beans, lima beans, white beans or navy beans, black beans, etc.
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Tips for Care and Cultivation

Bean plants require a moist, well-drained soil, having a pH value between 6 to 7.2. Undrained soil and water logging can result in the rotting of beans. The soil should not have extreme moisture or water-retaining capacity, since excessive water can cause the beans or the saplings to rot.
Excess use of fertilizers must be avoided. These plants do not have very high fertilizer requirements, and grow well even in normal soils. However, to improve the soil quality, organic manure may be used.
Warm conditions are a prerequisite for the growth of these plants. The optimum temperature range is 60 to 80 degrees F. Harsh weather conditions, like extreme cold or extreme heat, during the growth stages, can affect the pod formation. The ideal time for sowing is one week before the last frost-free date of a particular region.
Beans must be planted 2 to 3 inches apart, to ensure proper nutrient and space availability.
On an average, it takes about 2-3 months for a bean to grow into a mature plant. The exact period varies with the bean variety as well as the weather and soil conditions.

LifeCycle

The various stages in the life cycle of a bean plant are described below. [Click on the images for an enlarged view]

Germination Stage
Germination

The bean remains dormant until favorable conditions are encountered. At temperatures between 60-80 degrees F, and in a moist but well-drained and nutritive soil, beans begin to sprout in 2-3 days.
A bean consists of two cotyledons, a radicle (which develops into roots), a plumule (which forms the shoot), and hypocotyl (which develops as the stem), all enclosed in a seed coat.
The process of sprouting begins with swelling of the bean, due to imbibition of water. As a result, the seed coat breaks, and the radicle emerges out.


Growth Stage
Growth

The hypocotyl, which is present in a curved form (like a hairpin), connects the radicle and plumule.
The direction of hypocotyl growth is influenced by sunlight (a phenomenon known as phototropism). Hence, once exposed to sunlight, it begins to grow upwards and straightens resulting in reorientation of the plumule, so that it can grow upwards and develop into leaves.
The cotyledons degenerate and fall off, and the sapling grows into a mature bean plant in about 6 weeks. It then enters the reproductive stage and starts flowering.


Reproductive Stage
Reproduction

Bean plants have bisexual flowers, that is, the flowers have both, male and female reproductive organs.
Stamens, consisting of filaments with anthers attached to their free ends, form the male reproductive organs. Whereas, a carpel consisting of a stigma, a style, and an ovary, is the female reproductive organ.
The male gametes, called pollen grains, are formed in specialized sacs inside the anthers, whereas, the female gametes are formed inside the ovary.


Pollination and Fertilization Stage
Fertilization

Once the male and female gametes are formed, the next event to take place is pollination. The pollen grains fall on a receptive stigma, of the same flower or on that of another bean plant, and trigger a series of events (mentioned below).
Once the pollen grains attach to the stigma, they germinate, and a pollen tube is formed. This pollen tube extends through the style, into the ovary, and serves as a passageway for the sperms in the pollen grain. The sperms travel through this pollen tube and enter the ovary.
Here, fertilization process takes place resulting in the formation of a zygote and the endosperm, which serves as a nutritive tissue for the zygote.


Green Bean Stage
GreenBean

The zygote, inside the ovary, grows by utilizing the nutrients from the endosperm, and further develops into beans, whereas the ovary grows into the pod.
At this stage, the bean pods are very delicate and green in color. These young pods and beans lose moisture, and mature to a dehiscent form, resulting in the dispersal of beans from the pod.
These beans are now fully equipped to begin a new cycle, and give rise to another bean plant.
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The bean plant is an annual plant, and completes its life cycle within one growing season. This aspect, coupled with the high nutritive value of beans, makes it a popular plant, as far as agricultural cultivation and kitchen gardens are concerned.

The beauty of the Lace Front Wigs

The beauty of the Lace Front Wigs

HUMAN HAIR WIGS

A bad hair day can cause one to feel stressed and non-confident in their efforts for the day. There are many items in hair care that offer women a fast solution to a bad hair day. Today, celebrities and ordinary people alike utilize lace wigs to transform their look in an instant, and now you can too. Lace Front Wigs are a particular type of wig that incorporates a mesh material in the front section of the crown to make blending with one's natural hair line easier. The beauty of the

 Lace Front Wigs is that its wearer has a natural appearance with no hint of a track line or mismatch between one's natural hair and the wig. Glamorous stars such as Beyonce and Tyra Banks have retired their hair weaves and started a runaway trend. Lace front wigs are durable, which is applied around the hairline, creating the illusion that the hair itself is growing from the wearer's scalp. It is okay to shower, swim, sleep, and even work out while wearing one.

HUMAN HAIR WIGS

Lace front wigs don't have the problem that weaves require their wearers to blend the extensions with their human hair wigs. The wearer's natural hair is often corn-rowed or pulled into a ponytail; the wig is placed on top, and there are no embarrassing braids or tracks that can be seen by others. Hair weaves are often attached with glue, which can cause breakage and drying. Lace front wigs only require a small amount of adhesive to be securely attached to the wearer's head. Lace front wigs also offer the styling versatility most women crave. Their versatility has made them the hair styling product of the future.If you want appear like a professional person. lace wigs are a great way to guarantee perfect, professional styles on a daily basis. You care much about your own hair, and this means you need not go to salon you can go for lace wigs.
When you plan to attend your friend's wedding, proms, anniversaries and graduations-formal events, you are suggested to go for up do's hair lace wig style. To achieve this look, a full lace wig is the best option. The full lace wigs will allow you to make your hair into any styles. With the help of full lace wig, it will make you a beautiful landscape in your friend's wedding. Many models apply celebrity wigs to achieve their glamazon look. In order to product the best result, the hair style has to match with the constant changes in backgrounds and photo shoot themes. A lace wig is a good way to make this be a reality.

How to make your Lace Wigs Last Longer

How to make your Lace Wigs Last Longer

HUMAN HAIR WIGS

Perhaps you have finally decided that you want to boost your good looks and purchased one of those lace front wigs. But then if you are to keep it in perfect condition then surely you need to know how to look after it. Costume wigs such as these are not at all heavy besides being comfy and provide you with a superb look. When you set your hands on the hairpiece, make sure you shake it gently by putting your hands inside it. This will assist in opening the hair out after slackening it. You may use a wig brush through the hair if the lace wigs have straight hair. But if it happens to be a curly wig then it is best to just run your fingers through the curls on it.

Depending on the type of adhesive utilized, lace wigs might last for anywhere from six weeks to even thirty years. If you use the lace front wigs in places where the environment is severe and you are subjected to the harsh rays of the sun or smoky conditions, then you will need to wash your hair pieces every now and then. Normally, when your lace wig gets sticky or entangled and looks lifeless, it is a sign that it is time to wash it. It is exactly like your hair so you should have a fair idea about when you ought to do it. Your lace front wig should be brushed gently at the bottom in order to remove any knots if present. You can also soak the costume wig for a few minutes before washing it in the washbasin with the help of a wig shampoo. Don't ever think of putting even your cheap lace wigs in the washing machine. Gently finish off with a rinse.

Pat the lace wigs dry with the help of a towel. Always remember not to wring the hair as it could lose shape. Also, you must never comb the lace front wigs while they are still dripping nor should you ever try to air dry them. Hang your full lace wigs on a stand to dry. You can also use a detangler spray and then smoothen it out gently with the help of your fingers. Treat your human hair wigs with the greatest of care. Ensure that you always use only wig care products which include wig shampoos, wig conditioners and wig brushes which are made especially for the in stock lace wigs. Many a time you might be introduced to products which are said to be gentle and delicate like products for babies for example. But these are definitely not the kind of products that you should use on your full lace wigs. Your wigs could end up looking very dull and might even lose their color.

HUMAN HAIR WIGS

If you have one of the curly lace wigs, then remember never to use a hairbrush that comes with nylon bristles. The curls on your curly wig will come undone. Also, stay away from hairspray, mousse and even permanent hair color. Also, you need to take care of your lace front wigs and where you wear them. Intense heat or cold can make a mess of your lace fronts. Stay away from clothes dryers, ovens, barbeques or boiling water to name a few. Or perhaps you could wear a scarf over your head to lessen the effect. And in case you ever get caught in the rain, snow or just a steamy condition, then just let your lace wig dry out before you wear it again.

Facts About the Eastern Worm Snake

Eastern worm snake is a small, brown, non-venomous snake. Its appearance is very similar to an earthworm. This article will help you identify it and provide information about its habitat, feeding habits, and other life cycle facts.

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Fact about the Eastern worm snake
Avoid Confusion!
This small, brown worm snake can be confused with other species like earth snakes, red-bellied snakes, southeastern crowned snake, little brown snake (Storeria dekayi), and the ring-necked snake. These snakes lack a pointed tail like the worm snake. The head shape, color, and body patterns help to distinguish it from the others.
The Eastern worm snake is one of the non-venomous colubrid species. It is a small species with a specific brown-colored body. It looks like an earthworm because of its small size and color. The earthworm is also its primary diet. It is normally found in eastern parts of the United States.

It is a fossorial snake, which means that it burrows into the soil most of the time. Its love for hiding makes it very difficult to spot. If seen, it is normally below dead plants or under rocks. It is harmless and hardly makes any contact with humans. Let's know some more details about this unique species.

Scientific Classification

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Subfamily: Xenodontinae
Genus: Carphophis
Species: C. amoenus
Subspecies: C. a. amoenus


Physical Features

➨ The body is of a brown shade, typically a pale and pattern-less brown body. The belly is pink. The juveniles have a darker shade of brown than the pale adults. Also, the juveniles have a darker pink underside.

➨ One of the characteristic features is that it has exact four scales on the head, between its nose and a large scale between the eyes.

➨ The head is not distinguishable from the body, and it has a slightly tapered but blunt shape. The functional eyes are small, round, and black in color. The tail is small and tapers to a pointed end. Its sharp, pointed tail helps it dig in the soil.

➨ An adult Eastern worm snake grows up to 11 - 14 inches only. The hatchlings are only 3 - 4 inches in length. The males are smaller than the females.

➨ The scales are smooth, which give it a glossy look. If there's any confusion between this snake and brown or red-bellied snakes, these smooth scales will help differentiate. Others have keeled scales.

Range, Habitat, and Diet

➤ These snakes are found in the Eastern U.S., from New England to central Georgia, and west of the Mississippi River. As you go west from the river, a similar (more colorful) western worm snake can be found. Basically, it is found in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, New York, New Jersey, southern Arizona, southern Connecticut, southern Massachusetts, and the Appalachian Mountains of Kentucky and Tennessee.

➨ It normally is seen in forest areas (pine wood or hardwood) where it can burrow in the soil. Tree barks, dead logs, leaf litter, mulch piles, weedy pastures, and under the rocks are some of the preferred places of this snake. In short, it can be found at places where it gets it food; be it fields, forest, or backyards.

✱ This snake feeds mostly on earthworms and grubs. It can also eat other soft-bodied larvae or insects. Very rarely will it feed on small salamanders, snails, or slugs.

Behavior

❏ In the dry season, it prefers to burrow and live very deep underground as it can find at least a little bit of moisture. Also, it mostly ventures out only at night, which helps in minimizing water loss and also to feed on its prey. In damp weather, the chances of a worm snake roaming in open areas is high. In winters, it hibernates. It is active during the evening, early mornings, and sometimes, at night.

❏ It is observed that if this snakes is held by humans, it will use its head and pointed tail to slip and slide between the fingers and run away.

❏ When threatened, it generally runs away and avoids any interaction. It may release an unpleasant odor from its anal glands. An Eastern worm snake is never known to bite. It might try to pierce its sharp tail, but it is of no harm.

Breeding and Life Cycle

➨ These snakes mostly mate in the months of May and June as both sexes are seen together. The eggs are seen through the translucent underside of the female. The eggs are laid in June to mid-July.

➨ One clutch of eggs have almost 2 - 8 small eggs that are elongated and only 1-inch long. The clutch size varies according to the size and age of the female. These eggs are laid under rocks or inside logs or stumps. These eggs mostly hatch around August - September. The incubation period is almost 2 months when the mother is seen around or with the eggs.

➨ In certain situations, the females will store the sperms in their oviducts, over winter, and will use them for fertilization only in spring or summer.

➨ Baby worm snakes mature at an age of 3 years. In the wild, these snakes can live up to 4 years of age. Very little is known about these secretive snakes.

➨ In our ecosystem, these snakes help control the worm or insect population. Sadly, these small snakes fall prey to many like prey birds, big snakes, large lizards, and even some small mammals. Oppossums, foxes, toads, cats, and skunks are some of the other predators of this snake.

➨ These snakes are not at all harmful to humans. Hence, they are sometimes also kept as pets. Their shy nature makes them suitable for beginners and snake lovers. If you are interested, then go through these tips to keep worm snakes as pets.
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Eastern worm snakes are marked as "Least Concern" by the IUCN. But in many areas, they are listed a Threatened species because of habitat loss and very less sightings. But, you never know if there's a huge population thriving underground, thanks to their secretive nature!

8 Applications of Fullerenes

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Ever since the discovery of fullerenes, towards the end of the last century, a number of new findings about these molecules is afoot. With its unique chemical and physical properties, the applications and uses of these molecules may be infinite. This article talks about a few of them.
Use of Fullerenes
What's in a name!
The Buckminsterfullerene was the first fullerene to be discovered and was named after the American architect, Buckminster Fuller, as it resembled the geodesic dome designed by him.
The Buckminsterfullerene is an allotrope of carbon discovered by Richard Smalley, Robert Curl, Harry Kroto et al at Rice University and Sussex University, in the year 1985, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1996. This led to the subsequent discoveries of a number of other similar compounds that were known as fullerenes.
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Due its relative ease of synthesis, fullerene of C60 remains popular and a lot of research for its potential applications has been carried out. The C60 buckyball is made of 60 carbons at 60 vertices that make a spherical structure. It is composed of 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal rings that are adjacent to each other. These rings are conjugated with double bonds. The C-C bond length for the hexagonal rings is 1.40 A° and 1.46 A° for the pentagonal rings, with the average bond length equal to 1.44 A°.

Fullerenes have sp2 as well as sp3 hybridized carbon atoms. These molecules have extremely high affinity for electrons and can be reversibly reduced to take up 6 electrons. Although this molecule is made of conjugated carbon rings, the electrons here are not delocalized, and thus, these molecules lack the property of superaromaticity. These molecules have very high tensile strength and bounce back to their original shape after being subjected to over 3,000 atmospheric pressure! Due to the unique properties of this allotrope of carbon, it has a number of applications―a few of them have been discussed below.

Applications and Uses of Fullerene

Medical Applications of Fullerene
Extensive research on the biomedical applications of this molecule has been underway ever since its discovery. The greatest challenge faced by scientists in doing so was its insolubility in aqueous medium, and its tendency to form aggregates. This was overcome by various techniques like encapsulation of the fullerenes with hydrophilic molecules, suspending this molecule with other solvents, and conjugating it with other hydrophilic molecules.

Antioxidants
Fullerenes can make excellent antioxidants, this property can be attributed to the large number of conjugated double bonds they possess and a very high electron affinity of these molecules (due to low energy of the unoccupied molecular orbital). Fullerenes can react with a number of radicals before being consumed. A single C60 molecule can interact with up to 34 methyl radicals before being used up. That is why, these molecules are also known as the 'world's most efficient radical scavengers' or 'radical sponge'. Perhaps, one of the major advantages of using these molecules as an antioxidant is that these can be localized within the cell.

These molecules also act as effective cytoprotectors against the ultraviolet A irradiation. These bind to the Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and prevent damage to cells. A water soluble derivative C60 with polyvinylpyrrolidone or Radical Sponge is usually added to cosmetics. This prevents skin damage and premature aging of the skin without any side effects. The biggest advantage of this molecule is that it is readily absorbed by the intact skin. Fullerene molecules also prevent lipid peroxidation by scavenging peroxy radicals, and thus, prevent cell cytotoxicity related with them.

Antiviral Agents
Fullerenes have grabbed quite a bit of attention due to their potential as antiviral agents. Perhaps the most exciting aspect of this may be their ability to suppress the replication of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and thus, delay the onset of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Dendrofullerene 1 and Derivative 2, trans isomer have been seen to inhibit the HIV protease, and thus, prevent replication of HIV 1. Bivalent metal derivatives of amino acid derivatives of fullerene, like C60-1-Ala, are also seen to be active against HIV and human cytomegalovirus replication. These molecules are usually inserted in the hydrophobic domains of proteins (binding site of protease in HIV).

Another target for amino acid derivative of fullerene is the reverse transcriptase in HIV, these molecules are seen to be more active than the non nucleoside analog inhibitors usually used. Cationic fullerene derivatives are antibacterial and antiproliferative in nature. Most fullerene derivatives can inhibit hepatitis C virus.

Water insoluble derivatives of fullerene show antiviral activities against enveloped viruses, when vesicular stomatitis virus is incubated with fullerene derivatives under visible light, it loses its infectivity. This can be attributed to the generation of singlet oxygen (more details will be discussed later).

Drug Delivery and Gene Delivery
Drug delivery is the proper transportation of a pharmaceutical compound to its site of action, whereas gene delivery is the introduction of foreign DNA into cells to bring about a desired effect. It is therefore of utmost importance to deliver these molecules with safety and great efficacy. Fullerenes are a class of inorganic carriers, these molecules are preferred as they show good biocompatibility, greater selectivity, retain the biological activity, and are small enough to be diffused. DNA sequences are attached to the amino acid derivatives of fullerene. These sequences detach from their carrier with the loss or denaturation of the amino groups. Biochemical studies have shown greater protective abilities of these derivatives as compared to the traditional vector used.

Fullerenes can be used in the delivery of hydrophobic drugs. In fact, these carriers are used in the slow release of these hydrophobic drugs in the system. A significant anticancer activity has been observed for C 60-paclitaxel conjugate. An additional benefit is that they can easily diffuse through intact skin―a fullerene-based peptide has demonstrated the ability to penetrate via skin.

Photosensitizers in Photodynamic Therapy
Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) is a form of therapy of using non-toxic light sensitive compound which, when exposed to light, becomes toxic. This is used to target altered and malignant cells. Fullerenes are usually used as these compounds. Fullerenes get excited upon irradiation, when these molecules return to ground state, they give off energy that splits the oxygen present to generate singlet oxygen, which can be cytotoxic in nature.

In the presence of electron donors, fullerenes are converted to C60- radicals (fullerenes are excellent acceptors of electrons). These radical anions transfer electrons to oxygen molecules and convert them to anionic superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. These radicals damage the DNA and may bring about cell death. Sometimes, certain fullerenes form conjugates with proteins and DNA, this has a potential application in developing certain anticancer therapy as well.

The highly water-soluble C60-N vinylpyrrolidone copolymer is used as an agent for photodynamic therapy.

➡ In metalofullerenes, like Gadofullerene, metals such as gadolinium, lithium, calcium, etc., are inserted in the cage of C60. These molecules are used as contrast agents in X-ray and MRI imaging as these molecules have a long spin relaxation times and some exceptional spin properties.

Other Applications of Fullerenes

Solar Cells
A polymer-based organic photovoltaic cell may be the answer to finding an economical and lightweight medium for the conversion of solar energy. These solar cells basically work by transfer of electrons from a material that gets excited when irradiated with light (known as the donor). This electron in its excited state is taken by an acceptor molecule, which is transferred further to the electrode. Fullerenes, due to their high electron affinity and ability to transfer these electrons, make excellent acceptors. These organic photovoltaic cells are complexes of fullerenes and polymers, and are called bulk heterojunctions.

Phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) is a common acceptor used in organic solar cells. It usually used in conjunction with the polymer polythiophene (P3HT) as an electron donor.

In Protective Eye wear
Fullerenes have optical limiting properties. This refers to its ability to decrease the transmittance of light incident to it. These molecules can therefore be used as an optical limiter that can be used in protective eye wear and sensors. This optical limiter will only allow the light below a particular threshold to pass through as well as maintain the light being transmitted at a constant level, much below the intensity that may cause damage to the eye or the sensor.

Hydrogen Gas Storage
The one-of-a-kind molecular structure of fullerenes enables them to hydrogenate and dehydrogenate quite easily. The carbon rings in fullerene are conjugated with C=C double bonds. On hydrogenation, these bonds can be broken easily giving rise to C-C single bonds and C-H bonds. When heat is applied to these fullerene hydrides, the C-H bonds break easily to give back fullerene. This is because the bond strength of C-H is lower as compared to that of C-C. One fullerene molecule can hold up to 36 hydrogen atoms. The color of hydrogenated fullerenes changes from black to brown, red, orange, and finally, to yellow as the hydrogen content increases. These molecules hold a promise of better, safer, and more efficient hydrogen storage devices than the ones that are currently being used.

Hardening Agents
Fullerenes can be the future of developing comparatively lightweight metals with greater tensile strength, without seriously compromising the ductility of the metal. This can be attributed to the small size and high reactivity due to the sp2 hybridization of the carbon. This enables dispersion strengthening metal matrix by interaction of the fullerenes and the metals. A 30% increase in the hardness of lightweight Ti-24.5AI-17N alloy has been observed with the addition of fullerenes.

➡ Fullerenes are quite similar in structure to diamonds. Recently, Argonne National Laboratories and MER Corporation have demonstrated the conversion of fullerenes into diamonds with minor rearrangement of the atoms. These fullerenes can be used as a substitute for diamond films required in various electronic devices.
Prom-Dresses
Currently, studies are underway to look into the potential use of fullerenes in sensors as well in development of molecular conductors. Perhaps, the greatest practical application of these molecules, at this time, may be in the cosmetic industries. Their use in other industries may be limited due the cost of synthesizing these molecules. However, with the aggressive research on these molecules, we can hope for a cost-effective method for synthesizing molecules to be developed shortly.